2913: Noms de Guerre Dec 12, 2024

A nom de guerre refers to a name adopted for the use during military involvement. The practice is not so common today; recently it has come up in the news as the Syrian rebel leader used the nom de guerre, Abu Mohammad al-Julani, but now after recent success is attempting to pivot back to his birth name, Ahmed Hussein al-Sharaa. Perhaps the last major use of a nom de guerre was in the 1970’s with Pol Pot, born Saloth Sâr, who kept it after he became General Secretary in Cambodia.

The practice originated with mandatory use of the nom de guerre in the French military. This practice dates to the 15th century, usually giving people pseudonyms based on geographic origins, and became a mandatory practice in the early 18th century. Not used for the officers, it was a form of identification, phased out with the advent of identification numbers. 

They are now often taken up by paramilitary leaders and many communist leaders to avoid indicting themselves, though whether a name taken by a revolutionary not directly involved in fighting is a nom de guerre is debatable.

2912: Hallmark Dec 11, 2024

The term ‘hallmark’ might evoke thoughts of greeting cards and cheesy movies, but it originates from the medieval practice of marking precious metals with a stamp. The ‘mark’ element is clear, but the ‘hall’ in question derives from a guildhall. These hallmarks were not maker’s marks as such, but a symbol of the guild as a sign of the quality and authenticity.

In England, the hallmarking system dates back to the 14th century, with official assay offices ensuring the metal's purity and the maker’s guild membership. In early America, however, the practice diverged and resembled maker’s marks, from an individual, and eventually in the 19th century this was all replaced with marks like 925 for sterling silver (i.e. exactly 925‰ silver, usually alloyed with copper or nickel) still used to denote authenticity and quality.

2911: Chicago as the "Second City" Dec 10, 2024

Chicago is still called "The Second City" despite losing the title of America's second-largest city to Los Angeles four decades ago, in 1984. The descriptive term “second city” is used for lots of other countries’ cities, like Birmingham in the UK or Marseille in France, but those have shifted over the decades, unlike with Chicago. Part of the reason is simply that people got used to this nickname. 

Many will say it has nothing to do with population, and rather the Great Chicago Fire of 1871. Then, when the city was largely destroyed and rebuilt, it became a symbol of resilience. Moreover, Chicago was not at all the second largest city—though it was growing rapidly, and incorporating surrounding areas into the municipality. The problem with this story is that the first use of Chicago as the Second city was in 1952, some seven decades later. The nickname "The Second City" is still in use, despite its inaccuracy and likely mythical origin.

2910: pain|staking pains|taking Dec 9, 2024

‘Painstaking’ is an unusual word. In many dictionaries, the pronunciation guides will show that people frequently produce the word as /ˈpeɪnˌsteɪkɪŋ/ where the word breaks up effectively as “pain + staking” which, is not the etymology. That pronunciation isn’t so strange—it is what would be anticipated through the Sonority Sequencing Principle (SSP)—but what is strange is that in Germanic languages, in nominal compounds, the first element acts like an adjective and shouldn’t be modified. Consider the US WWII-era military strategy of island-hopping (hyphenated for clarity) where obviously the islands would be plural, but this isn’t normally grammatical in English. There are exceptions, as of course with ‘painstaking’, though anyway this is more of a quirk with no singular ‘paintaking’ as such, but then this leads to confusing pronunciation.

2909: Baby Ruth and Babe Ruth Dec 8, 2024

You might think the baseball player, Babe Ruth would have sued the makers of the chocolate bar, Baby Ruth, but it was the candy bar company that took legal action against the baseball legend. The bar’s origins are steeped in controversy, with its creators claiming the candy was named after President Grover Cleveland's daughter, Ruth Cleveland, despite her passing decades earlier, and likewise the president’s no longer being in office almost 25 years. Babe Ruth, suspecting otherwise, attempted to launch his own candy bar, sparking a lawsuit from the Baby Ruth company. The candy makers argued that their product had no connection to the famed slugger and successfully blocked his venture. Modern companies clamber for endorsements from sports players, but this went, at least in the eyes of the law, went in the opposite direction.

2908: Irish Lenition: Celtic Mutation Dec 7, 2024

In Irish, lenition and eclipsis are two types of mutations that alter the beginning of a word, often depending on its grammatical context. Lenition, literally softening, affects consonants by making them voiced or spirantized, changing for instance "b" pronounced [b] to "bh" pronounced [v]. This mutation often occurs after certain prepositions or possessive pronouns. Eclipsis, on the other hand, involves replacing the initial consonant with a different one, such as "b" becoming "m" . Eclipsis typically follows the definite article or certain prepositions. Both mutations play a vital role in marking syntax, and are not merely allophonic (i.e. the same sound altered in different environments).

These mutations are not just linguistic quirks but essential parts of Irish grammar that indicate possession, number, or other syntactic features. For instance, ‘madra’ (dog) becomes “an mhadra” (the dog) when triggered by the definite article. This is different for instance to Hebrew’s system of gemination, the phonetic effect of which looks quite similar, but which is triggered by phonology, not grammar.

2907: Southpaw from Baseball Diamonds Dec 6, 2024

The term southpaw, commonly used to refer to left-handed individuals, originates from the world of baseball. In the 19th century, baseball fields were typically designed so that the batter faced east to avoid the sun blinding them during games. This layout placed left-handed pitchers facing west, with their pitching arms pointing southward when they stood on the mound. Sportswriters, quick to coin colourful terms, began calling these left-handed pitchers "southpaws." Over time, the term expanded beyond baseball to describe any left-handed person, especially now in the sport of boxing, blending its sporty roots with everyday language.

2906: And Then There Were None Dec 5, 2024

Agatha Christie's And Then There Were None holds the distinction of being not only the best-selling mystery novel of all time but also a text with a complex history of title changes, reflecting shifting cultural sensitivities. Originally published in 1939 under the title Ten Little N******, the book took its name from a British nursery rhyme central to the plot. In the United States, the title was softened to Ten Little Indians, another reference to the rhyme, though also incredibly racially insensitive. By the mid-20th century, recognising the inappropriateness of these terms, the book was renamed And Then There Were None, derived from the rhyme's final line and resonating with the novel's chilling denouement. The rhyme is crucial to the plot of the book, and features heavily, but many editions will now write “ten little soldiers…” instead.

2905: Scientific Terms from an Egyptian God Dec 4, 2024

The ancient Egyptian god Amun, with his ram's horns, contributed to a number of scientific terms. ‘Ammonite’’ referring to the spiral-shaped fossil, was named for the similar tightly curled horn shape. Less obviously, ammonia’, a pungent compound, and "sal ammoniac," a type of salt, both derive their names from "Horns of Ammon" due to their historical connection with the temple Jupiter Ammon at Siwa in Egypt, where these substances were first extracted. 

Interestingly, this connection has no relation to the biblical figure Ammon, or the Ammonites, an ancient Semitic people. The "horns of Jupiter" refer to a different symbol entirely. As far as the connection of "Jupiter Ammon” the figures were both depicted with horns, and as Egyptian and Roman cultures grew increasingly close, the worship would become fused, hence it is also referred to as “horns or Jupiter”.

2904: Margerine and Margret Dec 3, 2024

The names Margret and Margery share a common origin in the Greek word margaritēs, meaning "pearl." Margery is a variant of Margret, with its own unique linguistic history. Interestingly, the same Greek root also gives us the word margarine, coined in the 19th century for its pearl-like appearance. This shared etymology highlights a fascinating connection between these names and the spread of margarine, illustrating how language intertwines with both personal identities and everyday products.

2903: Electricity and Amber Dec 2, 2024

It may sound surprising that the word ‘electricity’, or more specifically ‘electron’ comes from Ancient Greek, given that the ancient Greeks did not understand these concepts. Moreover, it is clear that the come from the source ἤλεκτρον (electrum), but it’s not totally clear why.

Due to its being a naturally occurring alloy of gold and silver, the name for amber was applied to electricity because rubbing amber causes electrostatic, and possibly the word was reinforced by its color, occurring within two of the most electrically conductive natural materials.

This led to the Persian, (and hence Arabic كهرباء (kahrubā) meaning ‘amber’ but now ‘electricity’. In a somewhat dis case, the Modern Hebrew חשמל (hashmal), which appears in the Bible, notably in Ezekiel's vision, is as a mysterious, radiant spiritual substance, or a type of angel. This is most definitely not amber, but when the Bible was translated into Greek, the word ἤλεκτρον (electrum) was used to translate this Hebrew word.

2902: Carat and Carob Dec 1, 2024

The words "carat" and "karat", both units of weight used in measuring gemstones and gold, actually trace their origins to the humble carob tree. The carob seeds, which were used in the ancient world on account of their fairly  consistent weight, were used as a natural standard for measuring small quantities. In fact, the term "carat" is derived from the Greek word κερατωνία (keratonia), meaning "fruit of the carob tree". This is related to ‘keratin’, but not for any specific reason. κεράτιον (keration) means ‘horned’ and is natively Greek, but as it relates to the carob fruit, it was reinforced by a Semitic root, related to the Arabic  قَرَظ (qaraz) referring to another type of tree, the acacia. 

2901: Bookie Nov 30, 2024

The term bookie, meaning someone who manages bets, originates from bookmaster, a professional responsible for keeping financial records. As gambling gained popularity, book became shorthand for the ledger of bets and odds. This narrowed usage led to bookie, a diminutive reflecting the informal nature of the role. The evolution from bookmaster to bookie highlights how language adapts to societal and functional changes.

2900: Bread, Barley, and Brew Nov 29, 2024

The words bread, barley, and brew all trace back to the Proto-Germanic root braudą, meaning “a piece of food prepared by cooking or fermentation,” which itself derives from Proto-Indo-European *bher- (‘to boil’; ‘bubble’). Initially, this root referred broadly to processes involving fermentation, a vital technique for food and drink preservation. As agricultural societies evolved, this semantic field narrowed and specialized in different directions: bread emerged to denote leavened baked goods, as baking became a dominant use of fermented grains; barley, central to early brewing and baking, derived from the grain itself, which was central to both food and drink production; and brew retained its association with the bubbling process, specifically in preparing fermented beverages like beer. The divergence reflects shifts in cultural priorities and technological advancements that isolated these meanings into distinct but interconnected domains of sustenance.

2899: Folk Etymologies: An Arm and a Leg Nov 28, 2024

 The phrase “to cost an arm and a leg” (or conversely to charge etc.) is, like many idioms, difficult to track down. The obvious meaning is that it is expensive in that no one would be quick to remove them for any reason. There is another explanation offered commonly, which is that in the world of portraits, a bust was the cheapest, and the larger amount of one’s body was included in the painting, the more it cost, i.e. one was being charged literally per arm and leg. Again, it is usually very difficult to prove where a phrase comes from compared to the etymology of a single word, but a good way to prove something isn’t the origin, and is instead folk etymology, is with dating. 

Oxford English only first records this phrase in the USA in the mid-20th century, and would not have been born out of the era of portraiture. Other explanations, like 18th century British coinage or Roman culture etc.—all of which have been conjectured—are almost certainly wrong, but are more compelling stories than the plain meaning given at the start: they are precious to a person.

Indeed, similar phrases have been seen throughout history. The Biblical line, “if I would forget you, Jerusalem, let my right hand forget [itself]” paints a similar picture of value being compared to the utility of a hand. 

אם־אשכחך ירושלם תשכח ימיני*

2898: Zombie Nov 27, 2024

The word 'zombie' has its origins in the Haitian Creole word 'zombi', which likely stems from the West African languages of the Kongo and Yoruba. In these languages, words like 'nzambi' (meaning god) and 'zumbi' (meaning fetish or spirit) are believed to be the root forms. The concept of the zombie as an animated corpse, controlled by a sorcerer, was introduced to Western audiences through the Haitian Vodou culture during the early 20th century.The term gained widespread recognition in the English language after being popularized by films such as White Zombie (1932) and George A. Romero's iconic Night of the Living Dead (1968), evolving into its modern association with mindless, reanimated corpses. Over time, the meaning broadened to include various types of mindless, robotic-like individuals or figures in popular culture, moving far beyond its original Vodou context.

2897: Brutalism is not ‘Brutal’ Nov 26, 2024

The term 'brutalism', often associated with a style of architecture marked by raw concrete and angular forms, actually derives from the French word béton brut, meaning ‘raw concrete’. It was coined by the architect Le Corbusier in the 1950s, who used the phrase to describe his own unrefined use of concrete in building design. Contrary to popular belief, the word is not connected to the word ‘brute’ or ‘brutal’, which imply harshness or violence. Instead, it refers to the material’s unpolished, industrial aesthetic. That said, the word was later influenced by ‘brutal’ to give the form it has in English.

2896: Natural Gas: As Opposed to What? Nov 25, 2024

Natural gas is, true to form, natural gas, but this leaves a few awkward questions:

•Why don’t we say natural for plenty of other naturally occurring fuels, like petroleum?

•What is unnatural gas?

•Why isn’t helium, also removed from pockets trapped underground, a “natural gas”? 

Basically, it all comes down to the alternative: coal gas. Before the widespread use of natural gas, the gas powered burners of the 19th and early 20th centuries were coal gas, or sometimes wood gas powered, in a process similar to creating coke. This was later included in the term ‘manufactured gas’, referring here to all solids turned to gas for fuel consumption. 

The trends in technological innovations and acceptance can be mapped linguistically, as seen on this graph. ‘Coal gas’ became popular in the 1820’s, though it existed in the decade before, where ‘manufactured gas’ only took off in the 1930’s, and by the ‘50’s, it and ‘coal gas’ were certainly on the decline. ‘Natural gas’ only firmly became more popular around 1900 but has since become incredibly dominant in comparison.

2895: Crow and Raven Nov 24, 2024

Crows and ravens are related insofar as both are corvids, but they are different species, but month words share a common root. Both come from the same Proto-Indo-European root *krā-, which is believed to have referred to the sound of the bird’s call. The Old English word for ‘crow’, crāwe, and the Old English word for ‘raven’, hræfn, both evolved from this ancient root, though they developed distinct forms and meanings over time. Interestingly, the shift from the guttural hr- in hræfn to cr- in crāwe mirrors a broader linguistic change where either the [h] morphed into a [k] or dropped entirely. Today, while these birds are distinct species, their etymological roots show how language reflects both the natural world and its evolving interpretations by speakers across generations.

2893: Spice and Species Nov 22, 2024

Spices are not a specific botanical distinction, but come from an earlier sense of “special determining quality”. In fact, ‘spices’, ‘specific/special’, and ‘species’ all come from this root, but none of the same meaning. Rather, the Latin ‘speciēs’ meant “kind; sort”, but in the sense of ‘wares; goods’. Developing into “defining quality” of anything, the word branched off into particular words for quintessential elements of something or other, so the Old French ‘espice’ meant “the quality of food” i.e. flavor, and eventually led to ‘spice’, but also ‘species’ being the essential quality of a type of animal, and so on.